Research paper on carnival Essay

Mardi gras Just the name Mardi gras conjures up images of drunken, bead-wearing revelers dancing through the streets of New Orleans. But how, and when, did this huge mid-winter party get started? Here’s a look at the history of Mardi gras throughout the ages and across the nations. Herman states, Historians tell us that the ancient Romans probably kicked off the Mardi gras celebrations. (pg. 115)Their mid-February festival known as Lupercalia honored the god Lupercus, alternately known as the god of fertility and the god of agriculture and pastoral shepherds. In either case, his party definitely had Mardi Gras-like qualities, including days of feasting and drinking. And a little enjoying the â€Å"pleasures of the flesh†, probably, too — in fact, the term Carnival, often synonymous with Mardi gras, is derived from the Latin expression meaning â€Å"farewell to the flesh.† Like most of the ancient Roman and Greek festivals, Lupercalia was adopted and adapted by the Ch urch as a way of subtly converting the local pagans to Christianity. The carnival-like celebration of Lupercalia thus morphed into a last â€Å"fling† before the beginning of the Lenten period. Lent refers to the 40 days of pertinence and purification celebrated between Ash Wednesday and Easter Sunday. During Lent, the religiously faithful refrain from a number of indulgences of the â€Å"flesh†, including eating meat. (pg. 220) What began as a Roman-based celebration quickly spread across the European continent. By medieval times, lords were hosting carnivals prior to Lent in honor of the conscription of their new knights. Each region and country celebrated their own traditions, but all were indulgent. [pic] In France, this period of revelry before Lent was especially raucous. In fact, the term Mardi gras is a French expression meaning â€Å"Fat Tuesday† — likely referring to the indulgent nature of the pre-Lenten celebration. The name may have been more than just allegorical, however. Ancient pagans often marked their fertility ritual by parading a fattened ox through the town before sacrificing it. (lent pg. 101) It was also the French who brought the celebration to America. Many historians believe the party crossed the Atlantic Ocean in 1699, on the ship of a French explorer named Sieur d’Iberville. The Frenchman landed in what is today Louisiana, just south of New Orleans, the heart of America’s modern-day Mardi Gras celebrations. In fact, his landing is believed to have coincided with the French celebration of Mardi gras, explaining his choice of name for his point of entry: Point du Mardi Gras. However, dispute the d’Iberville connection, contending that it was the early French settlers to Louisiana who introduced Mardi gras to America. Regardless of the precise origin, Mardi gras can clearly be attributed to a Franco-influence. By the mid 1820s, Mardi gras was firmly rooted in the New Orleans culture. Lent later states that Today, the city’s celebrations are considered one of America’s biggest parties, with towns and cities throughout the Gulf Coast Region getting in on the fun. (112) Zulu (krewe of Mardi gras) Early in 1909, a group of laborers who had organized a club named â€Å"The Tramps,† went to the Pythian Theater to see a musical comedy performed by the Smart Set. The comedy included a skit entitled, â€Å"There Never Was and Never Will Be a King like Me,† about the Zulu Tribe. (herman pg. 201) The earliest signs of organization came from the fact that the majority of these men belonged to a Benevolent Aid Society. Benevolent Societies were the first forms of insurance in the Black community where, for a small amount of dues, members received financial help when sick or financial aid when burying deceased members. Conversations and interviews with older members also indicate that in that era the city was divided into wards and each ward had its own group or â€Å"Club.† The Tramps were one such group. After seeing the skit, they retired to their meeting place (a room in the rear of a restaurant/bar in the 1100 block of Perdido Street), and emerged as Zulus. (pg 210). According to herman, This group was probably made up of members from the Tramps, the Benevolent Aid Society and other ward-based groups. While the â€Å"Group† marched in Mardi gras as early as 1901, their first appearance as Zulus came in 1909, with William Story as King. The group wore raggedy pants, and had a Jubilee-singing quartet in front of and behind King Story. His costume of â€Å"lard can† crown and â€Å"banana stalk† scepter has been well documented. The Kings following William Story, (William Crawford – 1910, Peter Williams – 1912, and Henry Harris – 1914), were similarly attired. (pg. 214). 1915 heralded the first use of floats, constructed on a spring wagon, using dry good boxes. The float was decorated with palmetto leaves and moss and carried four Dukes along with the King. That humble beginning gave rise to the lavish floats we see in the Zulu parade today. On September 20, 1916, in the notorial office of Gabriel Fernandez, the Zulu Social Aid and Pleasure Club were incorporated. Twenty-two of the organization’s officers and members signed the first official document. The Geddes and Moss Funeral Home, located on Washington Avenue, played an integral part in Zulu’s beginning, and have continued to do so throughout the years. The first official toast of King Zulu and his Queen is held at this establishment each year. Zulus were not without their controversies, either. In the 1960’s during the height of Black awareness, it was unpopular to be a Zulu. Dressing in a grass skirt and donning a black face were seen as being demeaning. Large numbers of black organizations protested against the Zulu organization, and its membership dwindled to approximately 16 men. James Russell, a long-time member, served as president in this period, and is credited with holding the organization together and slowly bringing Zulu back to the forefront. (pg. 220) In 1968, Zulu’s route took them on two major streets; namely, St. Charles Avenue and Canal Street, for the first time in the modern era to see the Zulu parade, you had to travel the so-called â €Å"back streets† of the Black neighborhoods. The segregation laws of this period contributed to this, and Zulu tradition also played a part. In those days, neighborhood bars sponsored certain floats and, consequently, the floats were obligated to pass those bars. Passing meant stopping, as the bars advertised that the â€Å"Zulus will stop here!† Once stopped at a sponsoring bar, it was often difficult to get the riders out of the establishment, so the other floats took off in different directions to fulfill their obligations. Zulu has grown tremendously over the years. This continual growth is credited to the members for their love, loyalty and dedication to this organization. In 1978, the organization opened its doors to their new home, a two-story frame building houses a lounge downstairs for members and guests to enjoy themselves. Of all the throws to rain down from the many floats in the parades during carnival, the Zulu coconut or â€Å"Golden Nugget† is the most sought after. The earliest reference to the coconut appears to be about 1910 when the coconuts were given from the floats in their natural â€Å"hairy† state. Some years later there is a reference to Lloyd Lucus, â€Å"the sign painter,† scraping and painting the coconuts. This was the forerunner to the beautifully decorated coconuts we see today. (pg. 229) With the proliferation of lawsuits from people alleging injury from thrown coconuts, the organization was unable to get insurance coverage in 1987. So that year, the honored tradition was suspended. After much lobbying, the Louisiana Legislature passed SB188, aptly dubbed the â€Å"Coconut Bill,† which excluded the coconut from liability for alleged injuries arising from the coconuts handed from the floats. On July 8, 1988, then-governor Edwards signed the bill into law. (pg. 233) Carnival in the Caribbean Hundreds of years ago followers of the Catholic religion in Italy started the tradition of holding a wild costume festival right before Lent. Because Catholics are not supposed to eat meat during Lent, they called their festival, ‘carnevale’-which means â€Å"to put away meat.† (internet site: â€Å"caribbean carnival†)As time passed, carnivals in Italy became quite famous. The practice spread to France, Spain and Portugal. As these Catholic countries began to take control of the Americas and other parts of the world, they brought with them their tradition of celebrating Carnival. In many parts of the world, where Catholic Europeans set up colonies and entered into slave trade, carnival took root. Today Carnival celebrations are found throughout the Caribbean. Traditions of the cultures have come together and especially African dance and music traditions transformed the early European carnival traditions in the Americas. Important to the Caribbean festival arts are the ancient African traditions of parading and moving in circles through villages in costumes and masks. These traditions were believed to bring good fortune, to heal problems and chill out angry spirits. Caribbean carnival traditions also borrow from the African culture the tradition of creating pieces of sculpture, masks and costumes. For the Caribbean people carnival became an important way to express their rich cultural traditions. It takes many months of coming up with a theme or overall concept and developing costumes for the dancers. Lots of creativity, energy and patience is put into work such as welding, painting, sewing, gluing, applying feathers, sequins and glitter. Carnival groups, entertained by music orchestras, parade and dance wearing costumes depicting a common theme. When Carnival first began it was celebrated from December 26 until Shrove Tuesday (the day before Ash Wednesday). Nowadays Carnival festivities and activities are being held year-round in the Caribbean. The dates on which Carnival celebrations such as; music competitions, festivals, concerts, street ‘jump-up’s’, beauty pageants, balls, parades etc. take place may vary from country to country, from island to island. For days, sometimes weeks, the people of the Caribbean express themselves socially and artistically and sheer joy with visitors from all over the world. (internet sit â€Å"Caribbean carnival†)Everyone, including the spectators, is part of the celebrations. Antigua and Bermuda The festivities reveal the many influences that formed the Antiguan society, cultural, social and political. Over the years cultural elements from countries like Venezuela, Brazil, Holland, Colombia and the United States have slipped into the Antiguan community and blended with and into the unique world famous carnival celebration with its typical characteristics of creativity and rhythm, dance happiness, Flamboyant costumes, Beauty pageants, Talent shows, and Great music. All these and more define a fantastic celebration of happiness that is the Antigua Carnival. In retrospect, the Antigua Carnival dates back in August 1 of 1834 when slavery was entirely abolished. In 1666, it was ravaged by French inhabitants but was soon conquered by the British and was formally restored to them by the Treaty of Breda. It all started when the local natives immediately went to the streets to express their joyful celebration of freedom. As the years passed by, it continued not until in 1957 where it was declared an official Antigua Carnival. (oduber pg. 97) Since then, the Antigua Carnival has developed into ten days packed with revelry in a glitzy manner of dance to the beat of the Calypso. It includes marches, jump-ups and shows which always took place around the last week of July up to the first week of August. The Antigua Carnival is undeniably the best time for tourists to immerse with the culture of this Caribbean island. If you head to the city, you are fortunate to witness the Pan Ban, a steel orchestra, practicing for the event.(oduber pg. 99) They go by troupes as they set up a Mas Camp, a base where their intricate wardrobes are made. It is also the starting point as they walk to the metropolis to open the Antigua Carnival. The lively event culminates by a massive road party called J’ouvert, which means â€Å"day break†. Everybody is literally on their feet as they sway to the beat of the dr ums from the young night until the middle morning. Barbados (Crop over) Masquerading was an old African tradition, where they paraded in masks and costumes through the villages to bring good luck and to remove evil spirits. Originally materials for costumes were natural things such as; grass, beads, bones, etc. Head-pieces and Masks were made of feathers to symbolize that people can spiritually rise above anything. Most European colonies within the Caribbean who were part of the slave trade have Carnival or Carnival-like celebrations. (praiser pg. 23)Now in large countries like USA, Canada and England, where they are Caribbean communities you will find Carnival celebrations. The History of Crop Over The end of the sugar cane harvest, or Crop Over as it is almost always referred to, has long been the occasion for celebration. In what seems to be the earliest reference to the Crop Over festival, we find the manager of Newton Plantation writing in 1788 to the estate’s owner in England, telling him that he had held a â€Å"dinner and sober dance† for the slaves, saying: â€Å"twas a celebration of Harvest Time after the crop.† (housman pg. 304) Many aspects of plantation life in Barbados carried on unchanged after the end of slavery, and the Crop Over festival likewise continued. Never the less there must have been an important difference in the way in which the festival was perceived. Before emancipation, the planter had no choice but to support his slaves, well or badly as the case might have been, all year round. After 1838, for most people Crop Over meant not just the end of a period of hard work, but also the beginning of a period of less work and lower wag es. For many the interval between two crops would indeed have been â€Å"hard times†, and the symbol of these, perhaps not invented until after Emancipation, was the figure of a man stuffed with trash (the dried leaves of the sugar cane plant) which was known as â€Å"Mr. Harding†. (pg. 311) Mr. Harding was formally introduced to the manager of the plantation, and, according to some accounts, later burnt as part of the celebrations which must have had a tinge of desperation to them as people strove to enjoy themselves while they could. The festival was apparently fairly common at the beginning of the present century, by which time the name Crop Over seems to have ousted that of Harvest Time. A procession of carts would bring the last canes to the plantation yard, the draught animals being decorated with flamboyant, frangipani and other flowers, whilst brightly colored kerchiefs would be tied like flags to the canes. The laborers would parade around the yard, and it was at this point that that they would introduce Mr. Harding to the manager, after which they would adjourn for a dance, for the manager or the owner of the estate would normally contribute some salt meat and rum. Even by 1940 Crop Over was being described as a â€Å"custom which has very nearly died out†, according to Housman (pg. 316), and the continuing decline of sugar and the growing availability of other sources of employment had put an end to much of traditional plantation life. The modern Crop Over, revived by the Board of Tourism in 1974 and now administered by the National Cultural Foundation, pays tribute to the fact that sugar is still important in Barbados and the immense influence which it has had on our history. The present day festival is very different from the old time Crop Over, but it continues as a tradition by offering a thrilling celebration of many aspects of Bajan Culture, old and new. CROP-OVER CARNIVAL Crop-over has become the centerpiece of Barbados culture, a process enriched by much history, a savvy visitor promotional sense, and the great nearby pre-Lenten Carnival of Trinidad & Tobago. Conga-line from April 22 – May 01 begins with the longest Conga line in the Caribbean and features a series of concerts at the Malibu Conga line Village. May 1 is the finale, where bands, floats and Carnival goers take part in the May Day Parade, The Caribbean’s largest summer Carnival begins on the first Saturday with the Decorated cart and float opening and Gala crop-over opening. (praiser pg.31) This parade begins at Bridgetown Independence Square in the early afternoon and finishes at the National Stadium. Here, the opening ceremony takes place with the ceremonial delivery of the last canes and the crowning of the king and queen of the festival followed by an excellent night of entertainment and socializing. The festival, revived in 1974 following a 30-year hiatus, continues to grow and evolve with the culture. Unlike most Carnivals whose roots are in spring, Crop-over is a harvest festival dating back centuries to the end of the sugar cane season. The end to all the grueling and arduous work was marked by the final delivery of canes to the mill. Surely a cause for song, dance and general jubilation, as such, the workers would begin the festivities by boisterously telling each other â€Å"CROP OVER.† Folk Concerts celebrating the emancipation from slavery are popular events during the Carnival season the last Carnival weekend features the most important Carnival events. On Friday, there will be the Pic-O-De-Crop Finals at the National Stadium. The next night in the wee hours of Sunday morn, the Fore-Day morning jump-up will go down from 2am till dawn. Before this special event is the steelpan competition. Cohobblopot is a huge carnival-like show where the most popular calypsonians and bands perform on Carnival Sunday night. The Calypso Contest is one of the world’s best even though it features primarily local talent. Before the best singer/songwriters of the season are chosen, the talent will perform their new compositions at many venues or tents. These tents, with names like Super Gladiators, Conquerors, House of Soca, Pioneers and Stray Cats, play an important role in deciding who will win the title of Party Monarch, Road March Monarch and the Pic-O-De-Crop Monarch. The King and Queen of the bands competition is also an important part of the Cohobblopot Sunday show. Get tickets in advance since the National Stadium can sell out, particularly with all the talk about not allowing it to be broadcast on free TV. (pg. 37) All this buildup makes for a memorable Grand Finale, or as they say at Barbados Crop-over, the Grand Kadooment. Here, over two dozen large costumed bands will go dancing down de road inviting everyone to jump up with them as they make their way to the ocean surf. (pg. 42) Tuk: Indigenous to Barbados, it’s a combination of African and British military rhythms with the musicians dressed in minstrel like costumes creating music from kettledrums, bass drums and whistles. They play sounds like marching band music, old-time waltzes and almost always end with an African beat. According to praier, This is a great spectacle to see. ( pg. 51) The musicians are as serious about their music as any steelband man. Although a part of the old era, it is still very alive and a part of the modern day celebrations with completions staged during Crop Over. Calypso & Soca: Although calypso is indigenous to Trinidad, it now holds a very prominent place in the Crop over Celebration. Like Trinidad Carnival, it has all the trimmings, the Tents, parties, semi-finals judging and then to the Calypso Monarch finals, which take place just before Grand Kadooment. The Bajan artistes are holding their own with this art form and have even created new forms like Ringband and Ragga-soca, a definite invention of the Bajan calypsonians. (pg. 55) Steelband: Borrowed from Trinidad, the Bajans have taken it, and now the popularity and growth of the steelband in Barbados is phenomenal, states praiser. (pg. 68) with every year seeing the improvement of the sound and quality of the music to the extent that steelband has now taken a place on the curriculum of many of the schools on the island. Grand Kadooment: The grand finale, a parade of the costumed bands for the final competition for â€Å"Designer of the Year† Crown. The revelers are dressed in elaborate costumes depicting various themes dancing to music playing from the most popular bandstands, with disc jockeys winding their way down to Spring Garden where they would be judged for this coveted crown. (pg. 73) St. Vincent and the Grenadines (â€Å"vincy mas†) History Hugh Ragguette, a name that is synonymous with Carnival in St. Vincent explained to The Vincentian that the historic roots of Carnival lie in deep antiquity: since at the dawn of history, man celebrated several festivals of which Carnival was one. The Kalinagos and other indigenous peoples who inhabited St. Vincent had their festivals. With the introduction of slavery, the Africans with their varying cultures and rich variety added to those expressions. Although the practice of wearing â€Å"mas'† came from Africa and was subsequently adopted by the Greek and Romans, it was actually the French who celebrated carnival in the Caribbean as the highlight of the year. After the British supplanted the French, the practice continued. The wearing of Mas’ in carnival was introduced by the Pope in Rome in 1494 and then spread throughout Europe. (Sutty pg. 37) Naturally, the slaves participated in these festivals at a different level. â€Å"The slaves would have noted and partici pated in the festival, albeit at a different level. Naturally, they were not invited to the mas’ balls and dances.† stated however, when chattel slavery ended, the freed slaves embraced carnival and turned it into a â€Å"callaloo pot†, adding elements of the respective cultures.(pg 38) They took to the streets and displayed the theatrical spectacle they had created and to vent their subdued creative abilities. These street marches took place on the Monday and Tuesday before Ash Wednesday. Unable to chain the hands and feet of the slaves any longer, in 1892, he related, the colonial Governor banned the festival claiming that the revellers were lashing out at each other and observers with whips. Ragguette held another opinion, â€Å"The main reason was to suppress the people’s culture and their peculiar African expressions. The coloniser could not understand these expressions and wanted to stifle them.† The fire that burnt within slavery was reduced to mere embers and in 1879, fuelled by the unchainabl e African spirit it leapt into flames again. In 1899, the people decided that come what may, ban or no ban, which they were going to celebrate. They began the celebrations as early as the Friday preceding Ash Wednesday. As a result, the colonisers brought out what was termed â€Å"the armed might of the Empire†. (pg 44) The people resisted and a riot broke out, writing the Carnival Riots of the 11th and 12th February into this country’s history books. From then on, Carnival has been a part of St.Vincent’s culture. Four years later, â€Å"carnival fever† spread to Trinidad in the south where the festival had been banned resulting in the Comboule Riots. throughout the years people have built on and experimented with the components of Carnival; to the extent Trinidadians have invented a musical instrument in the form of the steel pan to provide accompanying music to its calypso. ( pg. 47). By 1973, it was virtually impossible to hold all the Carnival shows during the Wednesday and Tuesday period. â€Å"Our pan, our calypso, and particularly our Mas’ has reached a level of development that it needed to spread its wings outside the Catholic Christian Carnival to a more embracing festival,† Ragguette commented. (pg. 49) Since the festival was held so soon after Christmas and the length of time available for shows coupled with the fact the Trinidad and Tobago, whom Ragguette stated â€Å"had run away with title of king of Carnival in the world and boasted of having the greatest show on earth,† held its Carnival around the same time, it was necessary to move the festival to another season. The June-July period was decided as most suitable. (pg. 50) With more time to work, the CDC wanted to introduce a Caribbean component into its programme. Antigua and Barbuda already had a Caribbean Calypso Competition and the organisation could not get beyond the logistics of a Caribbean Pan or King and Queen of the Bands competition. sutty explained that it was felt that a show should be organised to showcase â€Å"the beauty and profound intelligence of our Caribbean women†. (pg. 53). This resulted in the birth of Miss Caribbean Carnival – Miss Carnival. Trinidad Carnival’s principal components are calypso, steelpan and playing mas (masquerade). In the historic capital City of Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, these elements are harmoniously structured to form a five day ritual pageant beginning with the King & Queen Contest (Friday), Panorama (Saturday), Dimanche Gras (Sunday), J’Ouvert (Monday) and the Parade of the Bands (Tuesday). (green pg 57) These main events and countless others build to an unforgettable epiphany of beauty and stunning display of the irrepressible human spirit before concluding and allowing the quiet first day of Lent and reflection known as Ash Wednesday to be admitted to consciousness. [pic]The genesis of this â€Å"world’s greatest† Carnival has been attributed to the many cultures of Trinidad and their interaction. While the African influence is predominant, the Carnival carries an overriding theme of unity, a central part of this unique culture’s mythology. Trinidad’s namesake, the holy Trinity is blessed as the unifying principle. This is the country’s well known motto, resting at the base of the ubiquitous and striking T&T Coat of Arms reads, â€Å"Together we Aspire, Together we achieve.† (pg 59).Yet the wisdom lies in paradox for there is no Carnival with more intense competition than Trinidad’s. [pic]Today Trinidad’s model for public celebration is the most widely imitated festival art form in the world. Many Trinidadian Carnival artists are able to work year round performing throughout North America, Europe, and the Caribbean. J’ouvert Jab Jab – The name of this mas is derived from the French patois for ‘Diable Diable†. It is pretty devil mas. The costume consists of a Kandal or satin knickers, and satin shirt with points of cloth at the waist, from which bells hang. On the chest, there is a shaped cloth panel which is decorated with swansdown, rhinestones and mirrors. Stockings and alpagatas are worn on the feet, while the headdress consists of a hood with stuffed cloth horns. The costume can come in alternating colors and be divided into front and back panels. (pg 61) The Jab Jab has a thick whip of plaited hemp which he swings and cracks threateningly. These whips can reduce the costumes of other Jab Jabs to threads. It is not to be confused with Jab Molassie. JAB MOLASSIE – Jab is the French patois for ‘Diable’ (Devil), and Molassie is the French patois for Mà ©lasse (Molasses). (pg 62)The Jab Molassie is one of several varieties of devil mas played in Trinidad and Tobago carnival. The costume consists of short pants or pants cut off at the knee, and a mask and horns. The jab malassie would carry chains, and wear locks and keys around his waist, and carry a pitch fork. He may smear his body with grease, tar, mud or colored dyes (red, green or blue). The jab molassie â€Å"wines† or gyrates to a rhythmic beat that is played on tins or pans by his imps. While some of his imps supply the music, others hold his chain, seemingly restraining him as he pulls against them in his wild dance. The differences among the various forms of devil mas were once distinct, but have become blurred over time. Trinidad’s carnival is a gorgeous paradigm of how carnival can connect the entire world. In this Trinidad little nation, the lifestyle and customs of various cultures come collectively for a short five days every year, the entire country stops thinking about their dissimilarities to celebrate life! Similar to many other countries under colonial rule, the history of Native Americans and African people in Trinidad is atrocious and a sad story. At different times England and Spain both maintained Trinidad as their colonies. Around 1785, Carnival was introduced to Trinidad. The French settlers started to arrive. The custom caught on rapidly, and fancy balls were held where the rich planters pretend masks, and beautiful dresses, wigs, and dance the whole night. The employ of masks had particular meaning for the slaves, as for several African peoples, masking is usually used in their rituals for the dead. Evidently banned from the masked balls of the French, the slaves would grasp their own tiny carnivals in their gardens — using their folklore and own rituals. However they also imitate their masters’ manners at the masked balls. Carnival has turned out to be a way to convey their authority as individuals for African people, and also for their rich cultural traditions. (pg. 102) The slavery was eradicated after 1838, the Africans were freed and started to host their individual carnival celebrations in Trinidad streets. This carnival developed progressively and sophisticated and rapidly became trendier than the balls. Nowadays, Trinidad carnival is like a mirror that reflects the faces the many immigrant nations from Africa, India, China and Europe. Carnival is such a significant aspect of life in Trinidad, as many schools trust that funding/ sponsoring a carnival band is a way to train youngsters about their culture and roots. According to green, Hundreds of schools and community organizations contribute in Trinidad’s Kiddies Carnival. In this fashion, communities’ works as one to build up strong friendships and good respect for the various cultures that make up Trinidad. (pg. 59) Bibliography â€Å"Caribbean carnival† Caribseek.comhttp://www.caribseek.com/adventure_and_entertainment/carnivals/caribbean-carnival.shtml. â€Å"Carnival in Trinidad.† Mustard.org.early 1985 carnival in Trinidad†¦evolution and symbolic menaing.21 February 2008 http://www.mustard.org.uk/articles/trinidad.htm. Cowley, John. Carnival, Canboulay and Calypso: Traditions in the Making. Trinidad: Macmillan Caribbean May 4, 1988 Green, Garth L. Trinidad Carnival: The Cultural Politics of a Transnational Festival. Massasetucheuts: Harper smith, 2005 Herman, Wouk. Don’t stop the carnival. USA: Doubleday, 1965 Housman, Gerald â€Å"The kebra nagast: the lost bible of Rastafarian wisdom and faith from Ethiopia and Jamaica.† (July 1979): 299-671 Lent, A John. Caribbean popular culture. Michigan: bowling green state university popular press, 2006. Pariser, Harry S. Explore Barbados. Manatee Press: 3 edition October 2007 Razak, Victoria M. Carnival in Antigua. Boston: Cenda Pub; 1 edition May 1, 1998 Riggio, Milla Co. Carnival: Culture in Action — The Trinidad Experience (Worlds of Performance). Routt ledge: Pablo Delano, 2004: Sutty, Lesley. St Vincent and the Grenadines. Caribbean: 2 edition September 2002 Oduber, Vanja. Antigua carnival. New York: Chauvenheid Graphic Group 1996

Conventional Morality Essay

Lawrence Kohlberg: â€Å"Physical consequences of an action determine its goodness or badness regardless of the human meaning or value of these consequences. Avoidance of punishment and unquestioning deference to power are valued in their own right, not in terms of respect for an underlying moral order supported by punishment and authority. † (Duska, R. and Whelan, M. , 1975) Summary: The concern is for self – â€Å"Will I get into trouble for doing (or not doing) it? † Good behaviour is associated with avoiding punishment. Inadequacy of Stage 1 reasoning: Avoidance of punishment regardless of the ethical value of the actions is unhealthy especially under â€Å"bad† authorities such as Adolf Hitler. * Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation Lawrence Kohlberg: Right action is â€Å"that which instrumentally satisfies one’s own needs and occasionally the needs of others. † â€Å"Human relations are viewed in terms like those of the marketplace; elements of fairness, reciprocity and equal sharing are present, but they are always interpreted in a physical or pragmatic way. Reciprocity is a matter of ‘you scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours,’ not of loyalty, gratitude or justice. † (Duska, R. and Whelan, M. , 1975) Summary: The concern is â€Å"What’s in it for me? † It is still egocentric in outlook but with a growing ability to see things from another person’s perspective. Action is judged right if it helps in satisfying one’s needs or involves a fair exchange. Inadequacy of Stage 2 reasoning: Where the needs of different individuals conflict, can there ever be a fair exchange? Doesn’t this conflict call for sacrifice from one of the parties? Level 2 – Conventional Morality People at this stage conform to the conventions / rules of a society. * Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation Lawrence Kohlberg: â€Å"Good behavior is that which pleases or helps others and is approved by them. There is much conformity to stereotypical images of what is majority or ‘natural’ behaviour. Behavior is frequently judged by intention. ‘He means well’ becomes important for the first time. One earns approval by being ‘nice. ‘† (Duska, R. and Whelan, M. , 1975) Summary: The concern is â€Å"What will people think of me? † and the desire is for group approval. Right action is one that would please or impress others. This often involves self-sacrifice but it provides the psychological pleasure of ‘approval of others. ‘ Actions are also judged in relation to their intention. Inadequacy of Stage 3 reasoning: * Same person, different roles OR Different groups, different expectations * Different people, different roles * People not living up to their duties or roles * Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation Lawrence Kohlberg: â€Å"Right behavior consists in doing one’s duty, showing respect for authority and maintaining the given social order for its own sake. † A person in this stage â€Å"orients to society as a system of fixed rule, law and authority with the prospect of any deviation from rules as leading to social chaos. † (Duska, R. and Whelan, M. , 1975) Summary: The concern now goes beyond one’s immediate group(s) to the larger society †¦ to the maintenance of law and order. One’s obligation to the law overrides one’s obligations of loyalty to one’s family, friends and groups. To put it simply, no one or group is above the law. Inadequacy of Stage 4 reasoning: * Unquestioning obedience toward authority is unhealthy. * Accepted social order may not be the best possible order. The laws of society may even be bad. Level 3 – POSTConventional Morality The moral principles that underline the conventions of a society in this level are understood. * Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation Lawrence Kohlberg: â€Å"Generally with utilitarian overtones. Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and in terms of standards which have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society †¦ with an emphasis upon the possibility of changing law in terms of rational consideration of social utility (rather than rigidly maintaining it in terms of Stage 4 law and order). † (Duska, R. and Whelan, M. , 1975) Summary: The concern is social utility or public interest. While rules are needed to maintain social order, they should not be blindly obeyed but should be set up (even changed) by social contract for the greater good of society. Right action is one that protects the rights of the individual according to rules agreed upon by the whole society. Inadequacy of Stage 5 reasoning: How do we arrive at a consensus on the rules that are good for society? Should a majority group impose their preferences on a minority group? What if you disagree with the decision of the majority? * Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation Lawrence Kohlberg: â€Å"Right is defined by the decision of conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical principles appealing to logical comprehensiveness, universality and consistency. These principles are abstract and ethical (the golden rule, the categorical imperative) and are not concrete moral rules like the Ten Commandments. At heart, these are universal principles of justice, of the reciprocity and equality of human rights, and of respect for the dignity of human beings as individual persons. † (Duska, R. and Whelan, M. , 1975) Summary: The concern is for moral principles †¦ an action is judged right if it is consistent with self-chosen ethical principles. These principles are not concrete moral rules but are universal principles of justice, reciprocity, equality and human dignity. Inadequacy of Stage 6 reasoning: Our conscience is not an infallible guide to behaviour because it works according to the principles we have adopted. Moreover, who or what determines these universal principles? Although moral reasoning does not necessarily lead to moral action, the latter is based in part on one’s capacity to reason about moral choices. Kohlberg was more concerned with the reasoning of the action than the action itself. And that reasoning when acted upon becomes our motivation. II – ETHICAL RELATIVISM * Cultural Relativism (sociological relativism): The descriptive view that different groups of people have different moral standards for evaluating acts as right or wrong. A. Hence, it is not an ethical doctrine–it’s a sociological or observational conclusion–even so; the view is somewhat ambiguous. B. For example, different groups might have the same basic moral principle, but apply the principle in radically different situations. 1. A second sense of cultural relativism is less obvious. I. e. , that different cultures differ on basic moral principles. 2. A possible reason for the observation of cultural relativism is shown by the example of basic moral principles which could be said to support different moral rules according to the interpretations of different cultures. In the following diagrams, there are two vastly different interpretations listed for each moral principle. * Ethical Relativism: the prescriptive view that (1) different groups of people ought to have different ethical standards for evaluating acts as right or wrong, (2) these different beliefs are true in their respective societies, and (3) these different beliefs are not instances of a basic moral principle. A. The ethical relativist often derives support for his position by two basic mistakes: 1. The relativist confuses cultural (or sociological) relativism with ethical relativism, but cultural relativism is a descriptive view and ethical relativism is a prescriptive view. (E. g. , cultural relativismdescribes the way the way people actually behave, and ethical relativism prescribes the way people ought to behave. 2. The ethical relativist often argues as follows: â€Å"An absolute ethical standard has never been proved beyond doubt in the history of thought. Thus, an absolute ethical standard does not exist. † This argument is an instance ad ignorantiam fallacy. p is unproved; not-p is true. From the fact that a statement has not been proved, we can logically draw no conclusion. B. Objections to ethical relativism. 1. The Differing Ideals Objection (or, as it is sometimes called, the linguistic objection): it is inconsistent to say that the same practice is considered right in one society and considered wrong in another. (If â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† are to have consistent meaning, then the terms must be used in the same manner. ) Possible counter-objections (by the ethical relativist): a. The relativist sometimes states that â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† have no consistent meaning. These words reflect only emotion or perhaps the ceremonial use of language. In other words, this defense shades into ethical subjectivism. Counter-counter-objection (by ethical absolutist): The problem with believing that â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† have no consistent meaning is the ordinary use of words in this case results in meaninglessness. What would happen if people used the same word in different situations to refer to different things? Communication would not take place. b. Some ethical relativists believe ethical words are reducible to non-ethical values; e. g. , these words have to do with recommendations for survival or well-being. Counter-counter-objection (by ethical absolutist): the problem here is just the difficulty of understanding the nature of a non-ethical value. Would a non-ethical value be an aesthetic value? c. Some relativists believe we can justify relativism by intuition, revelation, authority, etc. Counter-counter-objection (by ethical absolutist): these attempts are subjectively based; they differ from time to time and place to place. 2. Mental Health Objection to ethical relativism (from the definition or criterion of a group): If â€Å"what is right in one group is wrong in another,† where exactly does one group end and another begin? Counter-objections to the Mental Health Objection (by the relativist): * Right and wrong are to be determined in the situation. * Right and wrong are to be determined by what the majority determine at the time and place. * Right and wrong are ultimately established by power or authority. 3. Ad Populum Objection to the relativist’s belief that ethics is established by what most people believe: Simply because most people think something is right does not thereby make it right. Simply because most people think a statement is true does notmake that statement true Counter-objections to the ad populum objection (by the relativist): a. The same difficulty of establishing the meaning of â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† exits for the absolutist, pari passu. The absolutist has been unable to state a universally agreed upon meaning to the terms. (Notice that this response is a variant of the ad hominem—tu quoque.) b. Other solutions to the questions of the meaning of key ethical terms according to the relativist are possible by appealing to survival value, consensus gentium, and so on 4. Moral Progress Objection: If ethical relativism were correct, there could be no such thing as moral improvement or purpose in cultures or a person’s life. To have improvement, we must have a standard by which to judge the difference in moral values. Counter-objections (by the relativist): a. That’s correct–we can make no such judgment that one society is better than another. We could only judge by our own values. b. If something like â€Å"survival value† is used to ground moral beliefs, then moral improvement might be identified with â€Å"increased knowledge concerning survival of the society. † * Ethical Absolutism: the prescriptive view that there are basic or fundamental ethical principles which are true without qualification or exception as to time, condition, or circumstance. * Ethical Nihilism: the view that ethical terms such as â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† have no meaning or are nonsense. A. Objection: but something is meant when we say, â€Å"X is wrong. † Counter-objections (by the nihilist): 1. If there is no empirical meaning to the terms, they have no â€Å"cash value. † (Q. v. , positivism. ) 2. â€Å"Whatever can be said, can be said clearly. † The burden of proof that the terms have meaning is on the non-nihilist. * Ethical Skepticism: the view that ethical terms such as â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† might have meaning but their meaning cannot be established. A. Objection to skepticism at this point is methodological. Ethical skepticism should not be held a priori at the beginning of an investigation but should only be a possible outcome after a thorough study.

Common Law Versus Civil Law Systems Essay

The two principal legal systems in the world today are those of civil law and common law. Continental Europe, Latin America, most of Africa and many Central European and Asian nations are part of the civil law system; the United States, along with England and other countries once part of the British Empire, belong to the common law system. The civil law system has its roots in ancient Roman law, updated in the 6th century A.D. by the Emperor Justinian and adapted in later times by French and German jurists. The common law system began developing in England almost a millennium ago. By the time England’s Parliament was established, its royal judges had already begun basing their decisions on law â€Å"common† to the realm. A body of decisions was accumulating. Able lawyers assisted the process. On the European continent, Justinian’s resurrected law-books and the legal system of the Catholic Church played critical roles in harmonizing a thousand local laws. England, in the midst of constructing a flexible legal system of its own, was less influenced by these sources. It never embraced the sentiment of the French Revolution that the power of judges should be curbed, that they should be strictly limited to applying the law such as the legislature might declare. Thus, British colonists in America were steeped in this tradition. Indeed, among the grievances enumerated in the American Declaration of Independence were that the English king had deprived the colonists of the rights of Englishmen, that he had made colonial judges â€Å"dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices† and that he had denied the people â€Å"the benefits of Trial by Jury.† After the American Revolution, English common law was enthusiastically embraced by the newly independent American states. In the more than 200 years since that time, the common law in America has seen many changes — economic, political and social — and has become a system distinctive both in its techniques and its style of adjudication. It is often said that the com mon law system consists of unwritten â€Å"judge-made† law while the civil law system is composed of written codes. For the most part, law in the United States today is â€Å"made† by the legislative branch. To some extent, however, the judge-made law analogy is true. Judicial independence is a hallmark of the American legal system. As a co-equal branch of government, the judiciary — to a remarkable degree — operates free of control by the executive and legislative branches, deciding cases impartially, uninfluenced by popular opinion. The American people respect their courts and judges, even if they sometimes criticize them. In this contrast of common v. civil law, U.S. District Court Judge Peter Messitte (Maryland), considers some basic aspects of both systems and explains how the American common law system compares with that of civil law.Historically, much law in the American common law system has been created by judicial decisions, especially in such important areas as the law of property, contracts and torts — what in civil law countries would be known as â€Å"private delicts.† Civil law countries, in contrast, have adopted comprehensive civil codes covering such topics as persons, things, obligations and inheritan ce, as well as penal codes, codes of procedure and codes covering such matters as commercial law. But it would be incorrect to say that common law is unwritten law. The judicial decisions that have interpreted the law have, in fact, been written and have always been accessible. From the earliest times — Magna Carta is a good example — there has been â€Å"legislation,† what in civil law systems would be called â€Å"enacted law.† In the United States, this includes constitutions (both federal and state) as well as enactments by Congress and state legislatures. In addition, at both the federal and state levels, much law has in fact been codified. At the federal level, for example, there is an internal revenue code. State legislatures have adopted uniform codes in such areas as penal and commercial law. There are also uniform rules of civil and criminal procedure which, although typically adopted by the highest courts of the federal and state systems, are ultimately ratified by the legislatures. Still, it must be noted that many statutes and rules simply codify the results reached by common or â€Å"case† law. Judicial decisions interpreting constitutions and legislative enactments also become sources of the law themselves, so in the end the basic perception that the American system is one of judge-made law remains valid. At the same time, not all law in civil law countries is codified in the sense that it is organized into a comprehensive organic, whole statement of the law on a given subject. Sometimes individual statutes are enacted to deal with specific issues without being codified. These simply exist alongside the more comprehensive civil or penal codes of the system. And while decisions of the higher courts   in a civil law jurisdiction may not have the binding force of law in succeeding cases (as they do in a common law system), the fact is that in many civil law countries lower courts tend to follow the decisions of higher courts in the system because of their persuasive argumentation. Nevertheless, a judge in the civil law system is not legally bound by the previous decision of a higher court in an identical or similar case and is quite free to ignore the decision altogether. The Concept of Precedent In the United States, judicial decisions do have the force of law and must be respected by the public, by lawyers and of course, by the courts themselves. This is what is signified by the â€Å"concept of precedent,† as expressed in the Latin phrase stare decisis — â€Å"let it [the decision] stand.† The decisions of a higher court in the same jurisdiction as a lower court must be respected in the same or similar cases decided by the lower court. This tradition, inherited by the United States from England, is based on several policy considerations. These include predictability of results, the desire to treat equally everyone who faces the same or similar legal problems, the advantages to be gained when an issue is decided that affects all subsequent cases and respect for the accumulated wisdom of lawyers and judges in the past. But it is also understood that primary responsibility for making law belongs to the legislative authority; judges are expected to interpr et the law, at most filling in gaps when constitutions or statutes are ambiguous or silent. Thus, there are important limiting features to the concept of precedent. First and foremost, a court decision will only bind a lower court if the court rendering the decision is higher in the same line of authority. For example, a decision of the U.S. Supreme Court on a matter of constitutional or ordinary federal law will bind all U.S. courts everywhere because all courts are lower and in the same line of authority as the Supreme Court in such matters. But decisions of one of the several U.S. Courts of Appeals — the intermediate federal appeals courts — will only bind federal trial courts within their respective regions. Decisions of a state supreme court on the meaning of a state law where that court sits will be binding everywhere, so long as the state court’s decisions do not conflict with constitutional or federal statutory law. American judges tend to be very cautious in their decision-making. As a rule, they only entertain actual cases or controversies brought by litigants whose interests are in some way directly affected. In addition, judges usually decide cases on the narrowest possible grounds, avoiding, for example, constitutional issues when cases may be disposed of on non- constitutional grounds. Then, too, the â€Å"law† that judges state is only so much of their decision as is absolutely necessary to decide the case. Any other pronouncement on the law is unofficial. Another important limiting feature of the concept of precedent is that the later case must be the same or closely related to the previous one. Unless the facts are identical or substantially similar, the later court will be able to distinguish the earlier case and not be bound by it. The highest court of a jurisdiction, e.g., the U.S. Supreme Court for the United States or a state supreme court within its own state, can overrule a precedent even where the facts of the later case are identical or substantially similar to the earlier case. In 1954, for example, in the famous school integration of Brown v. Board of Education, the U.S. Supreme Court overruled an analogous decision it had rendered in 1896. But such direct over-ruling is not common. What is more likely is that the high court, by distinguishing later cases over time, will move away from an earlier precedent which has become undesirable. But for the most part, the long standi ng precedents of the high courts remain. An Organized Law Where does one go to find the law in America? It might be supposed that with both enacted law and judicial decisions comprising the law, the search would be difficult. But the task in fact is relatively easy. Even though much American law is not codified, it still has been systematized and organized by subject matter. Legal encyclopedias and treatises written by learned professors and practitioners set out the law in logical sequence, typically providing historical perspectives as well. These books of authority contain references to the principles and specific rules of law in a given branch of law, as well as citations to relevant statutes and judicial decisions. Accessing statutes in â€Å"codebooks† and cases in bound volumes called court reports, and nowadays accessing both by computer, is a relatively straightforward undertaking. But it also bears noting that in the common law system, treatise writers do not have the same importance that they do in the civil law system. In civil law countries, such authorities are sometimesconsidered sources of law, looked to for the development of the doctrine relative to a given subject matter. Their statements are given considerable weight by civil law judges. In the United States, in contrast, doctrine developed by treatise writers lacks binding force, although it may be cited for its persuasive effect. Common Law v. Civil Law Apart from these features, there are a number of institutions associated with the common law system not usually found in civil law systems. Principal among these is the jury which, at the option of the litigants, functions in both civil and criminal cases. The jury is a group of citizens, traditionally 12 in number, summoned at random to determine the facts in a lawsuit. When a trial by jury is held, the judge will instruct the jury on the law, but it remains for the jury to decide the facts. This means that ordinary citizens will decide which party will prevail in a civil case, and whether, in a criminal case, the accused is guilty or innocent of the charge against him or her. The institution of the jury has had an important shaping effect on the common law. Because jurors are brought in on a temporary basis to resolve factual issues, common law trials are usually concentrated events, sometimes only a matter of days (although occasionally possibly weeks or months in duration). Empha sis is on the oral testimony of witnesses, although documents also are presented as evidence. Lawyers have responsibility for preparing the case; the trial judge performs no investigation of the case prior to trial. Lawyers, acting as adversaries, take the lead in questioning the witnesses at trial, while the judge acts essentially as a referee. Testimony is recorded verbatim by a court reporter or electronically. The trial court, which is the â€Å"court of first instance† (i.e., where the case is first heard) in the American system, is where the factual record of the case is made. Generally speaking, appeals courts confine their review of the lower court record to errors of law, not of fact. No new evidence is received on appeal. All this stands in marked contrast to what is usually found in civil law systems, where jury trials are for the most part unknown. In a given case, instead of a single continuous trial, a series of court hearings may be held over an extended period. Documents play a more important role than witness testimony. The judge actively investigates the case and also conducts the questioning of the witnesses. Instead of a verbatim record of the proceedings, the judge’s notes and findings of fact comprise the record. Appeals may be taken both on the facts and the law, and the appeals court can and, sometimes does open the record to receive new evidence. Despite their differences, both the common and civil law systems have as their goal the just, speedy and inexpensive determination of disputes. U.S. courts have become particularly sensitive in recent years for the need to continuously reappraise their processes in order to improve the quality of justice. As a consequence of these efforts, there are many other aspects of court activity in the U.S. These range from alternate dispute resolution mechanisms (including arbitration and mediation) to such procedural devices as default and summary judgment, used by judges to decide cases at an early stage without having to proceed to a formal trial.

Organization Culture Exercise Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Organization Culture Exercise - Essay Example The personnel of the organization are involved as well as specialized in the arrangements of intercultural dialogues, networks and relationships. The organization is also involved in promoting education among the poor people of several countries. Considering the transparent role that the company is playing in terms of bringing together the people of different countries for the promotion of culture, the organizational culture of British Council is an example to be followed by the same people who are involved in different programs initiated by the organization. Considering the discussion of the organizational culture, the Competing Values Framework is one of the most successful business models which can answer well about an organizational environment and its working. The significant traits of this model can be seen through figure presented below: The model presented above can be said to be perfectly executed in the organizational culture of British Council. The human resource development is the key aim within the organization according to which the morale of the individual employees of the organization is boosted through various means. The internal process of the company is very transparent in which all the employees have stability in their job and they have firm control over their duties. The key aim is the spread of the information through all the departments involved in the organization into a particular activity. Growth is another feature that the employees are expected to show in the organizational environment, which means that the employees have to be forward-thinking and have positive approach in carrying out a particular function, and this is one main feature that has been experienced by me in the British Council’s organizational culture. The employees of the BC are also expected to be efficient and productive and for which they have better resources by using which they can become more transparent in their approach that

Enterprise Resource Planning Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Enterprise Resource Planning - Case Study Example The first stage was of the implementation of The Advantage 2000 was the development process. The development process involved four steps where business team members would design the global process, business and IS team members would look at SAP as the preferred platform, identify the gaps in the current system and work through them. Along with the development stage was the enterprise resource planning (ERP) that would simplify the support of common, global business processes and enable OC managers to do the following (pg. 667): During the development and planning stage Deloitte & Touche CG/ICS experts were actively involved to develop and deliver training to the project teams on process simplification. They were OC’s top management prior to Radcliff’s arrival due to their expertise in organization design, BPR, and change management. The next stage was the sourcing where talents and resources were sought that would enable the project become a reality. In May 1994 Michael Radcliff was brought on board as the company’s chief information officer. Along with the sourcing of talent was also the outsourcing of vendor that would serve as the transition system from the old legacy systems to the new system. In early 1995, project teams for the Advantage 2000 project started to form. Workshops then ensued to communicate and enable the entire IS community of the new high performance objective of a process oriented organization. Team members were trained to juggle from one function to another to enable systems integration a possibility on various business units of the organization under the auspices of its new CIO Radcliff. Among the teams that were created were Global Development Teams which were made of composite members from business and IS to form the new business process model whose objective was to develop and delvier process and systems solutions on time. R2 -included a

Anotted Bibliography Annotated Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Anotted - Annotated Bibliography Example This is another important factor that has to be considered. This is book that was authored by Paul Hawken. He has been on the field doing a lot of research on the persons that have been on the forefront for the bringing back of justice and environmental concerns to the society. In this book, Paul is quite concerned and focuses on a group or social movement that has being of no point or rather ignored by the political class in the society. He therefore talks much on the differences and the diversity of this category of people. In his piece of writing, he says that this group has very brilliant and innovative ideas that are quite constructive to the society. This is a group that is considered to be the largest in the World’s history of movements and associations. Baker, D. P., Thorne, S., Gamson, D., & Blair, C. (2006, August 11).Cognition, culture, and institutions: Affinities within the social construction of reality. Paper presented at the American Sociological Association Annual Conference in Montreal, Canada. This paper has its focus on the history of paradigm. The point of discussion or the bone of contention here is on the social construction of reality, (SCR). In this book, it highlights the development of the societal institutions. In the argument, it is well explained in the book on how the mental growth of the various institutions that are based on the collective reality of thoughts and ideas. This is in the essence that the people through their ways of socialization engage in the constructive mental thoughts and discussions with a lot of cognitive restructuring in the interaction for the better of the society and the environment. Harvey, M., & Buckley, M. R. (2002). Assessing the & quote; conventional wisdoms "e; of management for the 21st century organization. Organizational Dynamics, 30(4), 368-378. .

Child labor in the U.S. and around the world Research Paper

Child labor in the U.S. and around the world - Research Paper Example On the other hand, in sub-Saharan Africa this age stands at 18 years in most countries. This age is normally enshrined in the law of a given country and employers are expected to consider it when providing employment opportunities. Nonetheless, employers capitalize on the cheap labor provided by children leading to abuse and exploitation. This development has triggered many international human rights organizations to protest about the practice as it is both inhumane and exploitative (Whittaker, 2004, p. 13). History of Child Labor in U.S Child labor in the US dates back to the 18th and 19th centuries when children provided labor in family farms, industries, mines, and plantations. This was most rampant during the industrialization process when industries needed large labor supply. Industrialization implied that adult strength was no longer a per-requisite to the operation of the machines (Child Labor in U.S. History). Factory owners realized that they could effectively and economical ly utilize the services of children in their factories in order to cut down on the cost of production. This is because hiring children was much cheaper as compared to hiring adults (Hindman 25). Plantation farming and mining were other economic sectors attracting child labor. By the mid of 19th century, child labor was widespread across the world. Children were used mainly to provide labor in farms and factories. Most of these children worked for estimated 12-18 hours per day, six days a week, as a way of earning income. In addition, it most of these children began working before they attained the age of 10 years. They engaged in activities such as tending of machines in spinning meals or hauling heavy loads. At this time, most of the factories had not implemented... Child labor in the U.S. and around the world Economic disparity between the rich and the poor has pushed many children out of school in a bid to secure some income for their families. It is currently estimated that there are 215 million child laborers globally. Of this total, 114 million (53%) are in Asia and Pacific, 14 million (7%) are in Latin America, and 65 million (30%) are in sub-Saharan Africa (ilo.org). These working conditions violate the minimum age laws in the affected and involve abuse such as child trafficking, forced labor, and illegal activities. Children providing labor are deprived the opportunity to engage in children activities such as play and education. Child labor is fuelled by rising cases of poverty, which forces children to look for alternative sources of income. This draws them to provide labor especially in commercial agriculture, mining, domestic service, manufacturing, and fishing. Illegal activities involving child labor include prostitution, child soldiers, and drug trafficking. In this research paper, I seek to explore on the child labor as a practice. My primary objective is to indicate that child labor is both inhumane and less significant to economic growth and development and, therefore, should be discouraged at all costs. Child labor is inhumane and should be discouraged at all costs. It remains an illegal activity that every individual should stand up in arms against. It deprives the children the right to education in addition to lowering their self-esteem.

Terrorism over the world Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Terrorism over the world - Essay Example Instead, governments are busy gearing up defences against faceless terrorism. World had been sceptical about the 'intelligence' which saw things that never existed in Iraq and intelligence failure is considered to be one the main problems in terrorism. It is interesting that highly equipped, well endowed intelligence agencies have miserably failed in areas like Afghanistan and Iraq. There is a practical reason behind it. Western intelligence cannot employ westerners who are stunningly conspicuous and agencies are forced to employ locals. Some of the locals mislead purposely, or due to lack of co-ordination, training, language disabilities, information goes awry. Intelligence agencies have to rely upon them for their sources in alien countries. Failure in collecting relevant, timely and genuine information had been the root cause of many problems, including Iraq Conducting wars on terror in far-flung lands, adjusting to local conditions and weather, making decisions independently in unfamiliar atmosphere as against the abundant knowledge of inhabitants that local terrorists possess, had been not only expensive, but also erroneous, uncertain and at times deplorable. Poverty, deprivation, and thwarted aspirations had been main reasons to respond to the siren song of extremism, though many thinkers negate this assumption. Without containing these problems, controlling extremism cannot be long-lasting. Unless the extreme injustice, deprivation and inequality of fellow human beings are addressed, terrorism cannot be controlled completely. But this could be tackled only through a long drawn plan and definitely impossible to be applied as a yard stick, because the results we need should happen now. The disliking of America and Europe as a result of wrong policies, racism, colonialism, history and economic highhandedness that accumulated for nearly a century and more, has not made the white race exactly popular and even actions taken backed by the best interests are looked down upon with suspicion, hatred and cynicism. Failure in building an international cohesive front against terrorism, ignoring United Nations and sensible voices belonging to leaders of small countries too have additional negative effect. Eliminating the fertile ground upon which terrorism thrives had been impossible even in a country like Pakistan, which is totally under control of US, but works as a vast University for budding terrorists. This shows the futility of trying to contain it in unfriendly countries. Problem areas like Palestine, Lebanon, Kashmir, internal problems of Sri Lanka between two ethnicities and ruthless leadership of Prabhakaran, LTTE supreme, Osama and his clout amongst fanatic Muslims, rise of Hamas and Hezbollah, unending extremism in Iraq, all these issues keep smouldering, continuously feeding into terrorism. A miracle could not be expected unless there is a genuine addressing of these issues. It is impossible to ignore the carelessness with which West, especially America, allowed many opportunities to slip through its fingers. Terrorist activities should be deprived of media attention and as long as media creates heroes and role models out of terrorists, it is tough to be eradicated. "To be sure, because terrorism, however local, is by its very nature a world-wide theatrical attraction, it tends to encourage

The Simple Pendulum Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Simple Pendulum - Lab Report Example 1.79 seconds) as compared to 1.66 seconds in the second case. This can be explained using the formula:; where T is the period, L is the length, and g is force of gravity. T and L are directly proportional (Wilson 39). The â€Å"T† values for the 81 cm long simple pendulum of table 1 are more or less similar to the â€Å"T† values of the 81 cm long pendulum of table 2. For table 1, the average period is 1.77 seconds and for table 2 is 1.79 seconds. However, the error margin in table 2 is significantly bigger. The same results can be seen when comparison is done using 61 cm long simple pendulum and taking into account the error margin. This results explained by the fact that regardless of the size of the mass, the pull of gravity, which is also the driving force, remains the same. Acceleration for the two different masses also remains the same resulting to the similar period. In other words, the size of the mass has no effect on the period of a simple pendulum (Wilson

The Analysis on the success of Tesco Assignment

The Analysis on the success of Tesco - Assignment Example The success of an organization as argued by Philip Kotler and Kevin Lane Keller (2005) is mainly through the deployment of the 7Ps of marketing. In this section a critical analysis on the Price, product, Promotion and Place elements of the 7Ps is presented as these are identified as the critical elements in reaching the customer. Frances Brassington and Stephen Pettit (2003) argue that although the marketing mix can be explained using the 7Ps, the four critical elements that form the marketing mix are the four identified above. The authors further argue that the Marketing Mix plays a vital role in the overall marketing communication strategy of an organization, as it is the marketing mix that provides input to the marketing communication. The TESCO Finest and TESCO Value of the own brand range of products sold by the organization along with the leading brands in the retail industry is a classical example for the organization's success in the target market through extensive range of products as argued by Sandrine Mac and Scott A. Neslin (2004). The fact that TESCO Plc presents a wide range of choice in every category of its products is the major element fuelling its success in the UK and global retail market. 1.1.2: Price: The company pioneers in selling its products at competitive prices mainly lower than its supermarket competitors in the UK as well as in its global locations as argued by Isla Gower (2004) who says that 'the low price strategy of the organization without compromising the quality of its products is the key for its success in the UK retail market as the market leader'. Furthermore, the increasing awareness among the customers that quality need not be compromised with low price (Oliver Hupp and Ken Powaga, 2004) is the driving force for the organization in its continuous low price strategy. 1.1.3: Promotion: Promotion as argued by Philip Kotler and Kevin Lane Keller (2005) is 'the key for increasing the sales in the retail industry and retaining the customers in the target market'. The fact that TESCO Plc has established itself as a brand in the retail industry through pioneering in promotions like combination sales, event focused promotion of products and above all market focused promotion by its stores targeting the local markets is the major element for its growth in the UK retail market along with its pricing strategy. 1.1.4: Place: Place or the location for an organization in the retail sector is a critical element for its success as argued by Frances Brassington and Stephen Pettit (2003). This is naturally because of the need for local knowledge in the target market that serves for the promotion of its products and above all the choice of products presented in the shop floor (David Olson et al, 1982). The fact that the local knowledge is the key for increasing sales in the target demography as an organization can increase its sales only through the process of identifying the customer needs and understanding the behaviour of its target demography justifies that place or the location is a key element for the success of a retailer. The location of

Philosophical concepts - What is Ethics What is my responsibility to Assignment

Philosophical concepts - What is Ethics What is my responsibility to the public - Assignment Example Ethics acts as rules that give the difference between right and wrong. The desire to act according to expectations of a certain society makes people to consider having the right code of ethics. Each member of a given society has obligation to improve the welfare of the organization. Such obligations and expectations, define the responsibility of each member of the society. Ethics define the rules of a given society while responsibilities define expectations of each member of the society according to its ethics (Solomon, 1984). Ethics are implemented through responsibilities and this makes them useful to the society. The issue of national security versus individual privacy is a current issue that can be resolved adequately through ethics and responsibility. Although the federal government has a responsibility of ensuring national security, it is unethical for those endowed with this responsibility to invade personal privacy. This indicates that within an organization, people have a role to implement ethics through responsibilities or obligation. All ethics within a given society require responsibilities however, not all responsibilities are

How Traditional Family Cultural Survive in the Future Essay Example for Free

How Traditional Family Cultural Survive in the Future Essay Traditional businesses are essential and important for a country. These reveals the lovely culture and habits of nation. These are the most attractive places where foreigners visit whenever they arrive to the land. Foreigners also buy traditional products which is difficult to be bought in their places and be placed at their home for their arrival and remembrances of the places where they visited. Not only for foreigners but also for local people, traditional products show how a person love culture and tradition of that nation. They play an important role in the standard of nation, so it is impossible for them to be disappeared although they get a little way to success. When a country becomes more developed, there is a lesser number of traditional business. The other business are favored and traditional businesses are transformed into these businesses because they are relatively more easy to succeed and can get more profit. Traditional businesses are made by humans and cannot be substituted by others. Therefore, they are too expensive for basic people to buy and use them. The other substituted things are processed by machines and standardized. They produce in large quantities and get economy of scale and can be sold in low price. The basic choose the cheaper one for their daily use how much they love their tradition. But the country is based on basic class, not on upper class. The demands go down and traditions have to depend on foreigners and upper class, especially. There is a little chance for every traditional culture business to survive although it cannot be disappeared from the market. All have to transform and innovate new things. Their management style, production process orientation have to be upgraded. Almost all traditional businesses are sole traders. Their finances, profession and ability to do are limited. Only the person who leads the business decide what to do, how to do and who have to do. The other member are not included in the decision, the other members of the family or the floor workers. They have to change this because ones profession is limited, the decision may be very fast but may not be as good as one deciding by many. They do not have any accurate documents. Some only have Cash Book, Debtors book and Creditors book. They never draw any financial statement and never check their income and expenses. Some firms may not have any of these, they keep the cash to the drawers when something is sold. And at the end of the day, they keep it to the drawer. And also their pricing, they set the price above the cost of production. Prices are not set stable. Customer has to have full knowledge to get goods with right price. The production processes are made to be smooth. Not all the processes let human make. Making traditional things must be made by human but aided by machine. It can lessen time, make lower cost of production and can control the quality. Machines are more accurate than human. For example, in the process of making pots, they are fired with woods by humans. Instead of this ovens can be replaced. They can be fired with accurate temperature and woods do not need. It can lessen the cost and wages can be reduced. To do these, technology is the key point. Nowadays, we do business in production orientation. We do the best, but we do not know what the customers need, we do not find what they want from us. We have to change into marketing orientation. We must find out what customer needs, how can we fulfill their wish. We have to research on the market. People are bored when they get the only one thing. They always want newest thing, they always seek in us. We have to make innovation based on the tradition. It is important to have great care not missing tradition. foreigners are main customers for the traditional market. Although we can produce the products, we are weak in market distribution. so, we should need organization to improve traditional business. we should make internet website about traditional business. we should make knowledge distribution of tradition to the local. we should connect with travel tourism .so ,they introduce to visit our industry. And we explain the production process step by step thoroughly .we should create the design update. In traditional job, main problem is rare raw material. If we meet this problem , we should think the another way to substitute with other.

Urbanization: An analysis

Urbanization: An analysis 2.1 Urbanization 2.1.1 Current discourse in urbanization concept Urbanization is growing in most part of the world in line with technological discovery and human civilization. The rapid urbanization began at England’s industrial capitalism (Clark, 1998) at the end of 18th century and it spread rapidly after the use of coal for the industry primary raw material and a better transportation system (Hall, 1994). In developing world, urbanization started in 1950 after the Second World War (Crenshaw, 1991) and it is growing everywhere now especially in Africa and Asia. United Nation’s report indicated that by 2050, most population will be concentrated in cities and towns of developing countries. By this year, if Africa and Asia continue their current rapid growths, 50 percent of the population will live in urban areas and in 2010 it is predicted that the urban population is higher than the rural one (figure 2.1) Figure 2.1 Urban and rural population of the world, 1950 2030 (Source: Junaidi, 2006) There are four existing definitions for urbanization concept that mostly be the attention of urban planners. First, urbanization is seen as a process in which there have occurred transferring ideas and practices from urban areas into surrounding hinterlands. Second, urbanization is viewed as the increase both in behavior and problems considered to be urban types of rural area. The third, urbanization is related with the process of population concentration in which it is found the increasing ratio of the urban population to the total population (Phren. K. P, 1962) and the fourth, urbanization is seen as the combination of densification or the increase of density of people and building unit and the outward spread of people and built areas (Forman, T. www.cambridge.org). However, all of these definitions are interelated that all the urban planner needs to consider them in urban planning process integratedly. There are many related concepts involved from these in defining urbanization definition. From economic point of view, urbanization tend to connect it with labor division; demography related with density and population size, sociologic regarding to the way of living, and the last is geography from characteristics of the built up environment (Crenshaw, 1991). However, most analysts agree that demography is the basic criterion in differentiate urban and rural area (Clark, 1998, White, 1994, UNECA, 1968) because the population growth, including population density change, are the most quantified way to see the growth of an area. The most common example is United Nation that also uses the population size to standardize the urban localities and city among the nations. Mostly literatures argue that the driving force for urbanization is economic reason (Clark, 1998; Crenshaw, 1991, Jeremias, 1988), but there is a difference in the background of which. In developed world, rapid urbanization occurred because of industrial revolution, capitalism, and the invention of technology and a better transportation system while in developing countries, urbanization tend to occur because of economic imperial. The developing countries’ cities were previously prepared for supporting the economic interest of the powerful regime to earn money, to expand and control foreign trade, to create new markets for products and to acquire raw materials and cheap labor (Crenshaw, 1991). Many specific reasons for the driving force of urbanization and the traditional literature categorized them as push and pull factors. The push factor occurred because of the pressure of poverty problem and environment degradation in rural area. The poverty occurs because of limited job opportunities, limited land for agriculture and other natural resources limitation. The pull factor is related to the attraction of urban area for a better life. It is often related to a wider job opportunity, higher economic growth, better services and modern facilities (Baiquni, 2004). From this pull and push factors, it could be seen the disparities between urban and rural area are the main reason making more and more population concentrated in urban area. 2.1.2 Urbanization determinant The proximate determinants of urban growth can be grouped into three categories: firstly, the total population; secondly, rapid economic growth; and the third, percentage of built up area and areal extend (White, 1994). Population size The more population size of an area, the more urbanized it will be and it is positively related to the growth of urbanization (Rogers, 1982). The increasing of population size is caused by both migration and mortality. Migration flows occur because of employment availability in nearby cities and towns, ethnic connections in particular cities, the roads development and the accessibility of transportation (Connell et al, 1976). Some researches stated that the economic imbalance resulting wage disparities in urban and rural is a major reason for high levels of rural-to-urban migration. The size of population in urban area will be in line with the needs of water for these urban dwellers. Economic growth It appears that rapid economic growth related to urbanization (Becker Morrison 1988, Preston, 1979) that the urbanization level of an area can be marks by its rapid economic growth. Mostly in urban area people do not work in agriculture sector as in rural area, but in service and manufacture. The manufacture developments in urban area have triggered the employment opportunities for rural people to come, and a higher wage offered by manufacture sectors compared to the agriculture ones results in a better economic condition and quality of life. The quality of life will also influence to the water consumption quantity and quality. Percentage of built up area The urban characteristic can be seen from the density of people and the increase of building units. The sign is can be seen from the reduction of green spaces or the changing from low to high-rise apartment buildings. Other sign of urbanization is the city grows by expanding outward. Cities may also urbanize by rolling over suburbs, and suburbs urbanize by rolling over farmland or natural land (Crenshaw, 1991). The changing of landsape by built up environment will be related with the number of recharge area and wastewater quantity that will influence the groundwater. 2.2. Groundwater system on earth Groundwater constitutes about 98 percent of water on earth and both its storage and flow is one of the key elements of natural water systems (Foster, S, 1998). This fact makes groundwater an essential element to human life and economic activities. The details about groundwater hydrology are beyond the scope of this discussion, but a general overview will be presented. Figure 2.2. Hydrology Cycle Source: http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/stratplan2003/final/graphics/images/SciStratFig5-1.jpg Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and including one component of the earth’s water cycle. The water cycle is called the hydrologic cycle and it involves the movement of water as rain, snow, water vapor, surface water and groundwater. The earth’s water is constantly circulating from the earth’s surface up into the atmosphere and back down again as precipitation. When rain falls, a part of it infiltrates the soil. A proportion of this water will be taken up by plants while some will infiltrate more deeply, accumulate above an impermeable bed, saturate the pore space of the ground, and finally form an underground reservoir. This underground reservoir is called an aquifer, a place from which significant quantities of water can be abstracted for human needs. An aquifers productivity to store and transmit water are not the same, it depends on the fundamental characteristic of its constitute. Some of which are granular sediment such as sand, cement sediment such as sandstone and limestone, rock and fracture rock. The ground above an aquifer through is called the vadose zone; it is where the excess rainfall passed vertically. The level to which the ground is fully saturated is known as the water table. The nature, the occurrence of groundwater and the movement of water trough groundwater system is shown in the figure 2.2. 2.3 Urbanization and groundwater resources 2.3.1 Current Discourse Urbanization has been recognized as a trigger of social and environmental problems (Dogan Kasarda 1988, Timberlake 1985). The rapid expansion in groundwater exploitation of many industrialized nations occurred during 1950–1975 while in in most parts of the developing world it occurred during 1970–1990 (Zektser Margat 2003). The groundwater is estimated to provide at least globally 50% of current potable water supplies; 40% of the demand from industries, and 20% for water use in irrigated agriculture (Foster, 1998). These proportions vary widely from country to country and within countries depending on human activities on it. The groundwater is generally the main water resource to be tapped for urban dweller needs if a city has productive aquifers (Minciardi, 2007; Somma. 1997; Hiscock, 2002). This is because the groundwater has an excellent natural quality with significant savings in treatment costs compared to other surface water source. Other reason is because groundwater is a more secure source of water supply during long dry periods compared to the surface water resources (Clark, 1998, Ohgaki, 2007). Groundwater is also a suitable for public supply and independent private use, especially during the early stages of development (Foster, 1998). Two common methods for urban aquifer exploitation are by hand-dug wells and drilled boreholes (Foster, 1998). Hand-dug wells are usually less than 20 meters depth with diameters of 1 meter or more. In this method, the water is usually abstracted manually or by small pumps. The water supply boreholes are mechanically drilled, usually having smaller diameter than hand-dug wells, but much deeper ranging from 20 to 200 meters or more in depth. These two methods if developed in uncontrolled manner will cause groundwater depletion as it has occurred in many urban cities over the world (Ohgaki, 2007; Minciardi, 2006; Foster.S.S.D, 2001). 2.3.2 Urbanization impact to groundwater resources It has been identified that urbanization results in aquifer depletion, saline intrusion, and land subsidence, changing patterns and rates of aquifer recharge and affecting the quality and quantity of groundwater (Foster, 1998, White, 1994, Ohgaki, 2007, Minciardi, 2006). In this discussion the overall focus will be on the depletion of groundwater quantity related urbanization. Figure 2.2. Urban development and its impact to water resources Source: (Foster, 1998) From the figure above, it could be seen the urban development and its impact on the changing of urban groundwater. In the beginning, all cities evolve from small settlements; formal or informal. In this stage, the city dwellers can abstract groundwater using shallow well and boreholes as the groundwater is still abundant. As the infrastructure for wastewater either has not been adequate yet or less than the population needs, the wastewater starts discharging to the ground and starts to pollute the groundwater supply. When the town becomes city, the need of water supply is getting higher resulting from rapid urban population growth in contrast with the decline of groundwater supply. As the result, the well is deepened and there has been occurrence of land subsidence because of more urban dwellers do this deepening. The wastewater is still continuing to pollute the groundwater. The city then expands in line with the urbanization trend resulting to more water needed, more contaminant enters groundwater system and water table rises beneath the city. The urban dwellers start abandons their groundwater resources while the groundwater exploitation of hinterlands area as the alternate sources are getting higher. Because of the storage capacities of most aquifers are large, there is often a major time lag before the problems of groundwater depletion, water table rise and groundwater pollution becomes fully apparent (Foster, 1998). Further, there is increasing water supply scarcity with higher marginal costs for urban water supply. At the end, the traditional use groundwater that is low cost, minimally treated, and abundant for public water supply in urban areas is being threatened. Groundwater depletion The abstraction of groundwater has proved to be the cause of a qualitative decline in water levels. If abstraction is limited, the water level will be stabile at a new equilibrium. However, if occurs either a heavy or and concentrated groundwater withdrawal until it exceeds the local recharge, the water level may continue to decline over many years. As the result, there will be spreading of depress water level, land subsidence, water quality deterioration, sea water intrusion, up-coning and induced leakage of polluted water from the surface (Foster, 1998; Wangsaatmaja, 2006; Braadbaart, 1997) Mostly the problems and causes of aquifer depletion and contamination are clear while immediate solutions are not. General solutions involve some combination of increased recharge rate, reduced consumption rate, efficiency gains, and reduced or eliminated contaminant sources (Vo, 2007, Venkatesh Dutta, Foster.S.S.D, 2001). For example, reducing the velocity of runoff and providing time for recharge could enhance groundwater supplies significantly and at the same time reduce land-based sources of pollution to receiving waters. Land subsidence Land subsidence occurs for a variety reasons, but natural and manmade groundwater abstraction is one of the most contributor to this condition. The remedying efforts of the land subsidence impact involve a high economic cost (Foster, 1998). It is because differential subsidence damages roads, buildings, and other surface structures and it can seriously disrupt underground services such as water mains and water pipelines, sewers, cable conduits, tunnels, and subsurface tanks. In cities located on flat topography, subsidence can disrupt the drainage pattern of rivers and canals and can increase the risk of flooding. The land subsidence effects can be more serious in coastal areas because it can increase the risk of inundation (Hiscock, 2002). Saline intrusion The uncontrolled aquifer exploitation will impact on saline intrusion and it is usually occurs in coastal area. When the groundwater levels fall, the water flow direction change occurs. For thin and alluvial aquifers, this condition results in the formation of wedge shaped pattern and but in the thicker ones, salinity inversions often occur with intrusion of sea water in near-surface aquifer and fresh groundwater in deeper area. Once salinity has diffused into the pore water, its elution will take decades or centuries. Induced pollution Uncontrolled exploitation has consequences to contaminate the deeper aquifer. This induced pollution is caused by inadequate well construction, vertical pumping-induced, and sewage. Some rapidly developing cities have provided mains sewerage and generate large volumes of wastewater but this wastewater is normally discharged untreated or with minimal treatment to surface watercourses. It especially occurs in more arid climates (Anderson, 1987). 2.4 Urbanization Impact on groundwater management policy Although groundwater is the source of drinking water for most people, it is often ignored and taken for granted in urban planning program. The problem was expressed this way by the US Water Council in 1980: â€Å"The role of groundwater in water supply often has been slightenend in the past, one reason being believed that groundwater couldnot be adeqately evaluated in terms of avalibility, chemical quality, economics, or injuctive supply with surface water resources. However, substantial progress in groundwater analitical capability in recent years has made the resources more amanable to rational planning and management operation† (US Water Council in Grigg, 1996) Urban groundwater problems evolve over many years or decades as the result of slow the respond to most groundwater problem. The groundwater depletion and pollution problem are usually solved in incremental way by abandoning the shallow wells and replacing them with deeper boreholes to the aquifer (Grigg, 1996). However, this approach may only provide a temporary solution and if the urban planners continue this method, the groundwater supply will be in more stress condition. Therefore, the more comprehensive and sustainable groundwater planning and management approaches are needed to be developed (Tellman). 2.4.1 Groundwater Management Many literatures define groundwater management differently. Some emphasizes on the technical aspect such as engineering and hydrology, some are the process of managing and some others are the combination of them. However, the common similarity is on their objective that groundwater management is prepared to ensure that groundwater resources are managed in a fair, equitable and sustainable manner (Hiscock, 2002; Ohgaki, 2007; Minciardi, 2006;Venkatesh Dutta). Groundwater management can be defined as a number of integrated actions related to both natural and managed of groundwater pumping and recharge to achieve the long-term sustainability. California government in 2003 DWR Bulletin 118 2003 defines groundwater management as a set of activities including the planned and coordinated monitoring, operation, and administration of a groundwater basin or portion of a groundwater basin with the goal for long term sustainability of the resource. As the result, the groundwater management involves a number of engineering disciplines including survey and monitoring, geological interpretation, hydrological assessments, hydrogeological modeling, chemical and geochemical assessments and optimization. Groundwater management also deals with a complex interaction between human society needs and physical environment and it presents a difficult problem of policy design (Foster.S.S.D, 2001; Somma, 1997). For example, aquifers are exploited by human decisions for sustaining their lives and overexploitation cannot always be defined in technical terms, but as a failure to design and implement adequate institutional arrangements to manage people who exploit the groundwater resource. Common pool resources have been typically utilized in an open-access framework because of the characteristics of groundwater resources (Somma, 1997). When no one owns the resources, the users do not have any obligation to conserve for the future, and as the result, self-interest of individual users leads them to overexploitation. Groundwater management is a debated issue with very few examples of effective action on groundwater resources. However there some approaches that several studies concluded them as a successful groundwater methods, for example, sustainable groundwater development and management in the overexploited regions is treated by combining artificial recharge to groundwater and rainwater harvesting; management of salinity ingress in coastal aquifers; conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater; water conservation by increasing water-use efficiency; regulation of groundwater development.. Further, there also innovative methods of recharging the groundwater and storing water in floodplain aquifers along the river banks to enhance the ultimate irrigation potential from groundwater. The following four steps are essential for most groundwater management cases. Firstly, there must be regular and accurate assessment of actual groundwater use in both rural and urban areas to correlate with recharge and extraction. Secondly, expansion should be strictly monitored. Thirdly, separation of feeders for domestic and agricultural power and the fourth, ways must be explored to empower and entrust the communities to manage the groundwater uses. Development of groundwater management is usually begun by an assessment of groundwater problems and management issues, a compilation of groundwater management tools, an identification of action to address issues and problems, selection of the management plan and a discussion of implementation aspects of the plan. Mostly, the suitable groundwater management approaches are identified at the local water agency level and directly resolved at the local level. However, the State also has role in providing technical and financial assistance to local agencies for their groundwater management efforts. The Department publishes a regulatory framework for groundwater management to ensure that the groundwater resources are maintained and used in an orderly, equitable, and sustainable manner. If groundwater management is obeyed and the problem cannot be directly resolved at the local agency level, there is usually an additional actions such as enactment by local governments or decisions by the cou rts. 2.4.2 Sustainable groundwater management Groundwater is an important source of clean drinking water in many areas because of its characteristics, but mostly a sustainable management has not yet been established for this resource. Natural water bodies have become the place for storing human activities products, such as wastewater and other industrial pollution, causing little natural water storage capacity left. The sustainable groundwater management needs to involve a larger management system including the development of alternative surface water supplies, reallocation among economic uses of water, and regulatory limits on abstraction. Like other water resources management and other environment issues, all elements of active aquifer management must involve stakeholder participation and whole basin analysis. It means that sustainable groundwater management should take place on various levels, starting from the localized borehole owner and user to the regional aquifer, basin and catchment area. At the end, the groundwater development will much depend on management principles applied by Local authorities, Government and Inter Governmental development planning and management strategies. By taking appropriate measure, sustainable groundwater management development can be built. In urban planning practice these measures tend to reduce sewer overflows, improve the quality of treatment plant effluent and prevent falling water tables in areas around towns, cities, and the hinterlands. 2.4.3 Major approaches in sustainable groundwater management The literature generally literatures found that the approaches for sustainable groundwater management are divided into spatial and a-spatial approaches as below. The most common similarity in these approaches is that one method cannot stand alone but must be integrated and connected with other disciplines and other sectors. Integrating sustainable groundwater in spatial planning and management a.1) The use of `Hydrological Design Principles This approach involves zoning related to the catchment planning approach, the location approach, and buffering approach. The `Hydrological Design Principles as a basis for making spatial planning decisions or design of land use patterns is the most common approaches for groundwater management. The Catchment Planning Approach objectives are both to adjust land uses or activities with environmental requirements in the catchment area or drainage basin and to prevent peak discharges. This is implemented by allocating land use profiles to each catchment area and by taking account to maintain or increase the catchment areas’ water storage capacity. The attention to be paid is to both water quality and quantity aspects, which are to be managed with the most important goal for achieving an ecological balance with the land use activities. The Location Approach’s aims are to order the various land uses and activities within each catchment area so that the affect occurs is as little as possible to each of them. In this approach, the land uses that have greater demands on water quality are located upstream of more polluting ones, while the more vulnerable uses is located in areas of groundwater seepages. The clean land use activities are placed in the infiltration areas. The Buffering Approach is used to give chance the land uses with incompatible environmental requirements to co-exist. A well-known example at the local level is the hydrological buffering of natural sites from surrounding agricultural land. This can be achieved through appropriate design and management measures that can be implement in a relatively easy and quick manner. a.2) Integrating land use activities, groundwater systems and the environment The approaches are by water storage, habitat creation and natural water treatment combined with new urban development. In many places where the abstraction of drinking water causes damage to nature, water may be abstracted elsewhere instead, for example is in the hinterlands of that area. In some cases, groundwater abstraction should be stopped regarding to riverbank filtration. Water from the river can be pumped into the ground under the banks and later abstracted when it has been sufficiently filtered by passing through the sand and clay in the sub-soil. Raising storage capacity in the river basin through habitat creation, landscaping and establishing outdoor recreation areas are also other approaches for this method. The groundwater system had double function for human life. a.3) Ensuring enough room for water: Catch water where it falls It is mostly done in the areas around the main rivers or flood prone area. It can be in line with habitat protection because the raising the water storage capacity by lowering the ground level of the river or moving back the dikes back offer opportunities for nature development. The widening ditches and raising the drainage level can increase the water storage capacity. As the result, more room for water and the rainwater can be infiltrated into the soil instead of being drained away as quickly as possible to the sewer. An advantageous effect of giving water more room is the greater opportunity it presents to make use of natural filtration and water purification processes. a.4) Controlling subsurface contaminants load and ensuring sufficient clean water Water pollution problems can be partially minimized or controlled by delineating source protection zones around major groundwater catchment areas. On the other hand, there are some related approaches such as firstly; appropriate planning provisions or mitigation measures to reduce contaminants load in particular areas, especially where aquifer is highly vulnerable. Secondly, to moderate the subsurface contamination to acceptable levels by considering the vulnerability of local aquifers to pollution, land use planning to reduce potential pollution sources. Thirdly by selecting controls over effluent discharges and other existing pollution sources and the fourth is by planning waste water treatment or landfill disposal sites regarding to groundwater interests and impacts. Integrating sustainable groundwater in a-spatial planning and management b.1) Institutional management To improve groundwater management, a strong institutional framework is prerequisite. Regarding to groundwater characteristics, an ideal institutional framework should to include legislation to provide clear definition of water use rights that is separate from land ownership. It could be implemented through granting of licenses and tax for groundwater exploitation in a specified manner. Other approach is by regulating and supervising the discharge of liquid effluents to the ground, the land disposal of solid-wastes, and other potentially polluting activities with a need legal consent or planning approval. Some literatures also presented about the behavior change and prospectus in groundwater that is believed can be last longer than the technical approaches. b.2) Demand side management Groundwater management not only requires adequate assessment of available resources and hydrogeology by understanding of interconnection between surface and groundwater system, but also actions required for proper resource allocation and prevention of the adverse effects of uncontrolled development of ground water resources for short and long term. One of the important strategies for this is a-spatial sustainable management of groundwater by regulating the groundwater development in critical areas using demand side approach. Management of demand means managing efficiency of water use, interaction among economic activities that is adjusted with water availability. In demand side management, socio economic dimension plays an important role that it also involves the managing the users of water and land. It is because the regulatory interventions in demand side management such as water rights and permits and economic tools of water pricing will not be successful if the different user groups are not fully involved. As the result, for achieving effective management of groundwater resources, there is a need to create awareness among the different water user groups and workout area specific plans for sustainable development. From among these two characteristics, it can be concluded that there are two emerging broad types of management approaches for groundwater. Firstly, approaches including tools such as power pricing, subsidies for efficient technologies, economic policies discouraging water intensive crops, etc. Secondly, approaches dealing with specific aquifers on the basis of command and control management through a resource regulator. Whichever approach is adopted, the development and management of these resources must be based on an adequate knowledge of a clear comprehensive situation of groundwater aquifer system and its replenishment. Contents CHAPTER II 1 URBANIZATION AND GROUNDWATER PLANNING 1 2.1 Urbanization 1 2.1.1 Current discourse in urbanization concept 1 2.1.2 Urbanization determinant 3 a) Population size 3b) Economic growth 3c) Percentage of built up area 42.2. Groundwater system on earth 4 2.3 Urbanization and groundwater resources 5 2.3.1 Current Discourse 52.3.2 Urbanization impact to groundwater resources 6a) Groundwater depletion 8b) Land subsidence 9c) Saline intrusion 9d) Induced pollution 92.4 Urbanization Impact on groundwater management policy 9 2.4.1 Groundwater Management 102.4.2 Sustainable groundwater management 122.4.3 Major approaches in sustainable groundwater management 12a) Integrating sustainable groundwater in spatial planning and management 13a.1) The use of `Hydrological Design Principles 13a.2) Integrating land use activities, groundwater systems and the environment 13a.3) Ensuring enough room for water: Catch water where it falls 14a.4) Controlling subsurface contaminants load and ensuring sufficient clean water 14b) Integrating sustainable groundwater in a-spatial planning and management 15b.1) Institutional management 15b.2) Demand side management 15